Resumen
Los bosques de animales marinos (MAF, por sus siglas en inglés) son ecosistemas bentónicos dominados por invertebrados formadores de estructuras (por ejemplo, corales y esponjas) que proporcionan un hábitat estructural crítico y servicios ecosistémicos a nivel mundial. El objetivo de este artículo es sintetizar los conocimientos actuales sobre la función de los MAF en el mantenimiento de la biodiversidad, la regulación del clima y la generación de valor económico. Además, se explora cómo las tecnologías emergentes están revolucionando el estudio de estos ecosistemas. El artículo concluye esbozando las prioridades de investigación urgentes necesarias para orientar los esfuerzos de conservación y garantizar los servicios vitales que estos ecosistemas proporcionan a la humanidad.
Citas
Aaron Micallef, Timothy P. Le Bas, Veerle A.I. Huvenne, Philippe Blondel, Veit Hühnerbach & Alan Deidun. (2012). A multi-method approach for benthic habitat mapping of shallow coastal areas with high-resolution multibeam data. Continental Shelf Research, 39-40, 14-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2012.03.011
Arduini, D., Portacci, G., Giangrande, A., Acquaviva, M.I., Borghese, J., Calabrese, C., Giandomenico, S., Quarta, E., & Stabili, L. (2023). Growth Performance of Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck, 1819 under an Innovative Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture System (IMTA) in the Mar Grande of Taranto (Mediterranean Sea, Italy). Water, 15, 1922. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15101922
Arduini, D., Rossi, S., Migoni, D., & Giangrande, A. (2026). Cultivation of the polychaete worm Sabella spallanzanii (Gmelin, 1791) in a novel multi-species IMTA (Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture) system in the Mediterranean Sea. Aquaculture, 612, 743248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2024.743248
Avila, C. (2021). Chemical war in marine animal forests: Natural products and chemical interactions. In Perspectives on the marine animal forests of the world (pp. 239-307). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_8
Baillon, S., Hamel, J.-F., Wareham, V. E., & Mercier, A. (2012). Deep-sea coral and sponge habitats as nurseries for fish and invertebrates. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 452, 27-40. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09527
Bax, N., Williamson, A., Aguero, M., Gonzalez, E., & Geeves, W. (2003). Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Marine Policy, 27(4), 313-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(03)00041-1
Beck, M.W., Losada, I.J., Menéndez, P., Reguero, B.G., Díaz-Simal, P., & Fernández, F. (2018). The global flood protection savings provided by coral reefs. Nature Communications, 9, 2186. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04568-z
Bell, J. J., & Barnes, D. K. A. (2003). The importance of competitor identity, morphology and ranking methodology to outcomes in interference competitions between marine sponges. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 250, 125-138. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps250125
Bell, J. J., Rovellini, A., Davy, S. K., Taylor, M. W., Fulton, E. A., Dunn, M. R., Bennett, H. M., Kandler, N. M., Luter, H. M., & Webster, N. S. (2021). The functional roles of marine sponges. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 248, 106966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106966
Borghese, J., Giangrande, A., Arduini, D., Trani, R., Doria, L., Anglano, M., Rizzo, L., & Rossi, S. (2025). Seasonal variations in biological and environmental variables of an innovative IMTA system in the Mar Grande of Taranto (Mediterranean Sea). Aquaculture, 596, 741726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2024.741726
Brander, L. M., & Van Beukering, P. (2013). The economic value of the coral reef ecosystems of the United States. In C. R. C. Sheppard (Ed.), Coral Reefs of the World. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5840-4_28
Buhl-Mortensen, L., Vanreusel, A., Gooday, A. J., Levin, L. A., Priede, I. G., Buhl-Mortensen, P., Gheerardyn, H., King, N. J., & Raes, M. (2010). Biological structures as a source of habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity on the deep ocean margins. Marine Ecology, 31(1), 21-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0485.2010.00359.x
Buhl-Mortensen, P., Buhl-Mortensen, L., & Purser, A. (2016). Trophic ecology and habitat provision in cold-water coral ecosystems. In Marine animal forests (pp. 1-26). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17001-5_20-1
Cathalot, C., Van Oevelen, D., Cox, T. J. S., Kutti, T., Lavaleye, M., Duineveld, G., & Meysman, F. J. R. (2015). Cold-water coral reefs and adjacent sponge grounds: hotspots of benthic respiration and organic carbon cycling in the deep sea. Frontiers in Marine Science, 2, 37. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00037
Cau, A., Mercier, A., Moccia, D., & Auster, P.J. (2020). The Nursery Role of Marine Animal Forests. In S. Rossi & L. Bramanti (Eds.), Perspectives on the Marine Animal Forests of the World. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_10
Clark, M. R., Althaus, F., Williams, A., Niklitschek, E., Menezes, G. M., Hareide, N. R., Sutton, P., & O'Donnell, C. (2016). The impacts of deep-sea fisheries on benthic communities: a review. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73(suppl_1), i51-i69. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsv123
Cocozza di Montanara, A., Semprucci, F., Rendina, F., Russo, G., & Sandulli, R. (2025). The Structuring Role of Rhodolith Beds on Meiobenthic Communities in the Mediterranean Sea. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 35, e70060. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.70060
Creed, J. C., Rocha, R. M., Hoeksema, B. W., Serrano, E., Rilov, G., Milazzo, M., Turon, X., Rius, M., Vieira, E. A., & Silva, A. G. (2021). Invasive alien species and their effects on marine animal forests. In Perspectives on the marine animal forests of the world (pp. 419-467). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_14
Danielsen, F., Sørensen, M. K., Olwig, M. F., Selvam, V., Parish, F., Burgess, N. D., Hiraishi, T., Karunagaran, V. M., Rasmussen, M. S., Hansen, L. B., Quarto, A., & Suryadiputra, N. (2005). The Asian Tsunami: A Protective Role for Coastal Vegetation. Science, 310(5748), 643. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1118387
de Goeij, J. M., van Oevelen, D., Vermeij, M. J. A., Osinga, R., Middelburg, J. J., de Goeij, A. F. P. M., & Admiraal, W. (2013). Surviving in a marine desert: the sponge loop retains energy within coral reefs. Science, 342(6154), 108-110. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241981
Duarte, C. M., Agusti, S., Barbier, E., Britten, G. L., Castilla, J. C., Gattuso, J.-P., Fulweiler, R. W., Hughes, T. P., Knowlton, N., Lovelock, C. E., Lotze, H. K., Predragovic, M., Poloczanska, E., Roberts, C., & Worm, B. (2022). Rebuilding marine life. Nature, 580(7801), 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2146-7
Fabricius, K. E. (2005). Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50(2), 125-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.11.028
FAO. (2020). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
FAO. (2024). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) 2024. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Ferrario, F., Beck, M. W., Storlazzi, C. D., Micheli, F., Shepard, C. C., & Airoldi, L. (2014). The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation. Nature Communications, 5, 3794. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4794
Filgueira, R., Comeau, L. A., Guyondet, T., McKindsey, C. W., & Byron, C. J. (2015). The role of bivalves in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture: a review. Reviews in Aquaculture, 7(1), 62-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12053
Fraissinet, S., Arduini, D., Martines, A., De Benedetto, G.E., Malitesta, C., Giangrande, A., & Rossi, S. (2024). Seasonal occurrence and distribution of microplastics in four different benthic suspension feeders from IMTA facilities: a bioremediation perspective. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 207, 116811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116811
Gagan, M. K., Ayliffe, L. K., Beck, J. W., Cole, J. E., Druffel, E. R. M., Dunbar, R. B., & Schrag, D. P. (2000). New views of tropical paleoclimates from corals. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19(1-5), 45-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00054-4
Gomes-Pereira, J. N., Giacomello, E., Mendoza, J. C., Auger, V., Meunier, J., Grehan, A., & Pham, C. K. (2021). Current and future trends in marine image annotation software. Progress in Oceanography, 198, 102683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2021.102683
Gratwicke, B., & Speight, M. R. (2005). The relationship between fish species richness, abundance and habitat complexity in a range of shallow tropical marine habitats. Journal of Fish Biology, 66(3), 650-667. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-1112.2005.00629.x
Grizzle, R. E., Luckenbach, M. W., & Coen, L. D. (2008). Ecosystem services of oyster reefs: quantification and valuation. In A.J. Southward et al. (Eds.), Oyster Reef Habitats: Restoration and Management. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420065756
Guest, J. R., Tun, K., Low, J., Vergés, A., Marzinelli, E. M., & Campbell, A. H. (2014). Public awareness and attitudes towards coral reef conservation in Singapore. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 24(6), 769-779. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2464
Guizien, K., & Ghisalberti, M. (2017). Living in the Canopy of the Animal Forest: Physical and Biogeochemical Aspects. In S. Rossi, L. Bramanti, A. Gori, & C. Orejas (Eds.), Marine Animal Forests (pp. 507-528). Springer International Publishing, Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4_13
Gunasekera, S. P., Gunasekera, M., Longley, R. E., & Schulte, G. K. (1990). Discodermolide: a new bioactive polyhydroxylated lactone from the marine sponge Discodermia dissoluta. The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 55(16), 4912-4915. https://doi.org/10.1021/jo00303a029
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Poloczanska, E. S., Skirving, W., & Dove, S. (2018). Securing a Long-term Future for Coral Reefs. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 33(12), 936-944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2017.09.006
Hughes, T. P., Anderson, K. D., Connolly, S. R., Heron, S. F., Kerry, J. T., Lough, J. M., Baird, A. H., Baum, J. K., Berumen, M. L., Bridge, T. C., Claar, D. C., Eakin, C. M., Gilmour, J. P., Graham, N. A. J., Harrison, H., Hobbs, J.-P. A., Hoey, A. S., Hoogenboom, M., Lowe, R. J., McCulloch, M. T., Pandolfi, J. M., Pratchett, M., Schoepf, V., Torda, G., & Wilson, S. K. (2018). Spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching of corals in the Anthropocene. Science, 359(6371), 80-83. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan8048
Indraningrat, A. A. G., Smidt, H., & Sipkema, D. (2016). Bioprospecting sponge-associated microbes for antimicrobial compounds. Marine Drugs, 14(5), 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/md14050087
Jeunen, G. J., Knapp, M., Spencer, H. G., Lamare, M. D., Taylor, H. R., Stat, M., Bunce, M., & Gemmell, N. J. (2023). Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding reveals strong discrimination among diverse marine habitats connected by water movement. Molecular Ecology Resources, 23(5), 1059-1075. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.13762
Jiménez, C., & Orejas, C. (2017). The builders of the oceans–part II: corals from the past to the present (the stone from the sea). In Marine animal forests (pp. 1-41). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4_1
Jones, A. M., Thornhill, D. J., & Roelofs, A. J. (2015). Harvesting and collection of animal forest species. In Marine Animal Forests. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17001-5_56-1
Jones, C. G., Lawton, J. H., & Shachak, M. (1994). Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos, 69(3), 373-386. https://doi.org/10.2307/3545850
Kroeker, K. J., Kordas, R. L., Crim, R., Hendriks, I. E., Ramajo, L., Singh, G. S., Duarte, C. M., & Gattuso, J.-P. (2013). Impacts of ocean acidification on marine organisms: quantifying sensitivities and interaction with warming. Global Change Biology, 19(6), 1884-1896. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12179
Lamb, J. B., Willis, B. L., Fiorenza, E. A., Couch, C. S., Howard, R., Rader, D. N., True, J. D., Kelly, L. A., Ahmad, A., Jompa, J., & Harvell, C. D. (2018). Plastic waste associated with disease on coral reefs. Science, 359(6374), 460-462. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar3320
Langenkämper, D., Simon-Lledó, E., Hosking, B., Jones, D. O. B., & Nattkemper, T. W. (2023). On the role of benthic communities in facilitating carbon storage in seas and oceans. Frontiers in Marine Science, 10, 1105754. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1105754
Leal, M. C., Puga, J., Serôdio, J., Gomes, N. C., & Calado, R. (2012). Trends in the discovery of new marine natural products from invertebrates over the last two decades–where and what are we bioprospecting? PLoS One, 7(1), e30580. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030580
Leal, M. C., Puga, J., Serôdio, J., Gomes, N. C. M., & Calado, R. (2012). Bioactive compounds from marine invertebrates: potential for the prevention and treatment of cancer. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 13(1), 175-187. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920112798868674
Leray, M., & Knowlton, N. (2015). DNA barcoding and metabarcoding of standardized samples reveal patterns of marine benthic diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(7), 2076-2081. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1424997112
Lipcius, R. N., Stockhausen, W. T., & Eggleston, D. B. (1997). The significance of marine animal forest as nursery habitats for juvenile spiny lobster, Panulirus argus. Bulletin of Marine Science, 61(1), 23-34.
Maldonado, M., López-Acosta, M., Sitjà, C., García-Puig, M., Galobart, C., Ercilla, G., & Leynaert, A. (2021). Sponge skeletons as an important sink of silicon in the global ocean. Nature Geoscience, 14(11), 815-822. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-021-00773-2
Mayer, A. M. S., Rodríguez, A. D., Berlinck, R. G. S., & Hamann, M. T. (2010). The odyssey of marine pharmaceuticals: a current pipeline perspective. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 31(6), 255-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2010.02.005
Morris, L. A., Voolstra, C. R., Quigley, K. M., Bourne, D. G., & Bay, L. K. (2023). Coral restoration and adaptation in a changing world: a guide to best practices. Annual Review of Marine Science, 16, 81-111. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-040323-094352
Muscatine, L., & Porter, J. W. (1977). Reef corals: mutualistic symbioses adapted to nutrient-poor environments. BioScience, 27(7), 454-460. https://doi.org/10.2307/1297526
Mutter, R., & Wills, M. (2000). Chemistry and clinical biology of the bryostatins. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 8(8), 1841-1860. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-0896(00)00150-4
Negri, A. P., Flores, F., Röthig, T., & Uthicke, S. (2011). Herbicides: a new threat to the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Pollution, 159(10), 2920-2929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.042
Nelson, H., & Bramanti, L. (2020). From trees to octocorals: The role of self-thinning and shading in underwater animal forests. In S. Rossi & L. Bramanti (Eds.), Perspectives on the Marine Animal Forests of the World. Springer-Nature, Cham, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_3
Neves da Rocha, L.S., Nunes, J.A.C.C., Miranda, R.J., Cruz, I.C.S., & Creed, J.C. (2024). Effects of invasive sun corals on habitat structural complexity mediate reef trophic pathways. Marine Biology, 171, 76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-024-04394-6
O'Connor, S., Campbell, R., Cortez, H., & Knowles, T. (2009). Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits. International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth MA, USA.
Orejas, C., Gori, A., Rad-Menéndez, C., Lastras, G., & Taviani, M. (2020). The effect of hydrodynamic forcing on the distribution of deep-sea corals in the Cap de Creus Canyon (NW Mediterranean). Progress in Oceanography, 102405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2019.102405
Orejas, C., Carreiro-Silva, M., Mohn, C., Reimer, J.D., Samaai, T., Allcock, A.L., & Rossi, S. (2022). Marine Animal Forests of the World: Definition and Characteristics. RIO, 8, e96274. https://doi.org/10.3897/rio.8.e96274
Oxford Economics. (2017). At what price? The economic, social and icon value of the Great Barrier Reef. Report for the Great Barrier Reef Foundation.
Paoli, C., Montefalcone, M., Morri, C., Vassallo, P., & Bianchi, C. N. (2017). Ecosystem functions and services of the marine animal forests. In Marine animal forests (pp. 1271-1312). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4_36
Patel, B., Balani, M. C., & Patel, S. (1985). Heavy metals in marine sponges: a review. Marine Environmental Research, 16(2), 87-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-1136(85)90023-0
Pawlik, J. R. (2011). The chemical ecology of sponges on Caribbean reefs: natural products shape the ecosystem. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 37(6), 541-543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-011-9947-5
Peña, V., & Bárbara, I. (2023). Marine natural products in drug discovery: a review of their recent advances and current clinical uses. Marine Drugs, 21(10), 539. https://doi.org/10.3390/md21100539
Price, D. M., Robert, K., Callaway, A., Lo Iacono, C., Hall, R. A., & Huvenne, V. A. (2019). Using 3D photogrammetry from ROV video to quantify cold-water coral reef structural complexity and investigate its influence on biodiversity and community assemblage. Coral Reefs, 38(5), 1007-1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-019-01827-3
Quattrini, A. M., Gómez, C. E., Cordes, E. E., & McFadden, C. S. (2023). Phylogenomic and morphological reconstruction of the order Scleralcyonacea (Cnidaria: Octocorallia): the deep evolutionary history of a marine animal forest. Systematic Biology, syad058. https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syad058
Renzi, M., Blaškovi?, A., Fastelli, P., Marcelli, M., & Guerranti, C. (2019). Microplastic accumulation in ascidians: a case study from the Venice Lagoon. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 146, 734-739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.07.044
Rhyne, A. L., Tlusty, M. F., Schofield, P. J., Kaufman, L., Morris, J. A., Jr, & Bruckner, A. W. (2012). Revealing the appetite of the marine aquarium fish trade: the volume and biodiversity of fish imported into the United States. PLoS One, 7(5), e35808. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035808
Rossi, P., Gori, A., Gili, J. M., & Amblas, D. (2021). The Destructive Impact of Ship Anchoring on a Deep-Sea Coral Garden: A Case Study from the Gioia Canyon (Tyrrhenian Sea). Oceans, 2(2), 383-397. https://doi.org/10.3390/oceans2020022
Rossi, P., Ponti, M., Righi, S., Castagnetti, C., Simonini, R., Mancini, F., Agrafiotis, P., Bassani, L., Bruno, F., Cerrano, C., Cignoni, P., Corsini, M., Drap, P., Dubbini, M., Garrabou, J., Gori, A., Gracias, N., Ledoux, J-B., Linares, C., Mantas, T.P., Menna, F., Nocerino, E., Palma, M., Pavoni, G., Ridolfi, A., Rossi, S., Skarlatos, D., Treibitz, T., Turicchia, E., Yuval, M., & Capra, A. (2021). Needs and Gaps in Optical Underwater Technologies and Methods for the Investigation of Marine Animal Forest 3D Structural Complexity. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8, 591292. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.591292
Rossi, S. (2013). The destruction of the 'animal forests' in the oceans: towards an over-simplification of the benthic ecosystems. Ocean & Coastal Management, 84, 77-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.07.004
Rossi, S., Bramanti, L., Broglio, E., & Gili, J.M. (2012). Trophic impact of long-lived species indicated by population dynamics in a short-lived hydrozoan, Eudendrium racemosum. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 467, 97-111. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09936
Rossi, S., Bramanti, L., Gori, A., & Orejas, C. (2017). An Overview of the Animal Forests of the World. In S. Rossi, L. Bramanti, A. Gori, & C. Orejas (Eds.), Marine Animal Forests: the ecology of benthic biodiversity hotspots (pp. 1-28). Springer, Germany. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4_1
Rossi, S., Bramanti, L., Horta, P., Allcock, L., Carreiro-Silva, M., Coppari, M., Denis, V., Hadjioannou, L., Isla, E., Jimenez, C., Johnson, M., Mohn, C., Orejas, C., Ramšak, A., Reimer, J., Rinkevich, B., Rizzo, L., Salomidi, M., Samaai, T., Schubert, N., Soares, M., Thurstan, R.H., Vassallo, P., Ziveri, P., & Zorrilla-Pujana, J. (2022). Protecting global marine animal forests. Science, 376(6596), 929. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abq7583
Rossi, S., & Orejas, C. (2019). Approaching CWC to the society: novel ways to transfer knowledge. In C. Orejas & C. Jiménez (Eds.), Mediterranean Cold-Water Corals: Past, Present and Future, Coral Reefs of the World 9. Springer-Nature, Germany. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91608-8_39
Rossi, S., & Rizzo, L. (2020). Marine animal forests as C immobilizers or why we should preserve these three-dimensional alive structures. In S. Rossi & L. Bramanti (Eds.), Perspectives on the marine animal forests of the world (pp. 333-399). Springer-Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_12
Soares, M., Matos, E., Lucas, C., Rizzo, L., Allcock, L., & Rossi, S. (2020). Microplastics in Corals: An emergent threat. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 161, 111810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111810
Spalding, M., Burke, L., Wood, S. A., Ashpole, J., Hutchison, J., & zu Ermgassen, P. (2017). Mapping the global value and distribution of coral reef tourism. Marine Policy, 82, 104-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.05.014
Storlazzi, C.D., Reguero, B.G., Cole, A.D., Lowe, E., Shope, J.B., Gibbs, A.E., Nickel, B.A., McCall, R.T., van Dongeren, A.R., & Beck, M.W. (2019). Rigorously valuing the role of U.S. coral reefs in coastal hazard risk reduction. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2019-1027. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20191027
Sturaro, N., Hsieh, Y. E., Chen, Q., Wang, P.-L., & Denis, V. (2021). Trophic plasticity of mixotrophic corals under contrasting environments. Functional Ecology, 35, 2841-2855. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13924
Teh, L. C. L., & Sumaila, U. R. (2013). Contribution of marine fisheries to worldwide employment. Fish and Fisheries, 14(1), 77-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00450.x
Thrush, S.F., & Dayton, P.K. (2002). Disturbance to marine benthic habitats by trawling and dredging: implications for marine biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 33, 449-473. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150515
Thurber, A. R., Sweetman, A. K., Narayanaswamy, B. E., Jones, D. O. B., Ingels, J., & Hansman, R. L. (2014). Ecosystem function and services provided by the deep sea. Biogeosciences, 11(14), 3941-3963. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-3941-2014
Thurber, A. R., Sweetman, A. K., Smith, C. R., & Levin, L. A. (2023). The future of deep-seafloor ecology: incorporating complex interactions and ecosystem functions into global change models. Oceanography, 36(1), 22-33. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2023.205
Tomanek, L. (2011). Environmental Proteomics: Changes in the Proteome of Marine Organisms in Response to Environmental Stress, Pollutants, Infection, Symbiosis, and Development. Annual Review of Marine Science, 3, 373-399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142729
Torri, D. (2021). The Coral Tree at the End of the World: Introductory Notes to Coralline Mythology and Folklore from the Indian and Pacific Oceans. In Perspectives on the Marine Animal Forests of the World (pp. 1-16). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_1
Tsounis, G., Rossi, S., Grigg, R., Santangelo, G., Bramanti, L., & Gili, J-M. (2010). The exploitation and conservation of precious corals. In R.N. Gibson, R.J.A. Atkinson, & J.D.M. Gordon (Eds.), Oceanography and marine biology (pp. 161-212). Chapman and Hall/CRC, London. https://doi.org/10.1201/ebk1439821169-3
Turner, P. J., Horton, A. A., & Hooper, C. (2023). Climate change and marine benthos: a review of existing research and future directions in the North Atlantic. WIREs Climate Change, 14(3), e825. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.825
Uyarra, M. C., Watkinson, A. R., & Côté, I. M. (2005). The value of coral reefs to Caribbean tourism. Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium, 1, 583-588.
van Oevelen, D., Duineveld, G., Lavaleye, M., Mienis, F., Soetaert, K., & Heip, C. H. R. (2009). The cold-water coral community as a hot spot for carbon cycling on continental margins: A food-web analysis from the Rockall Bank (northeast Atlantic). Limnology and Oceanography, 54(6), 1829-1844. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2009.54.6.1829
van de Water, J. A. J. M., Tignat-Perrier, R., Allemand, D., & Ferrier-Pagès, C. (2022). Coral holobionts and biotechnology: from Blue Economy to coral reef conservation. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 74, 110-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2021.10.013
Veland, S., Howitt, R., & Dominey-Howes, D. (2013). The cultural value of the Great Barrier Reef for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. In S. Woodley et al. (Eds.), The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management. CSIRO Publishing.
Vogel, S. (1977). Current-induced flow through living sponges in nature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 74(5), 2069-2071. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.74.5.2069
Wangensteen Fuentes, O. S., & Turon, X. (2016). Metabarcoding techniques for assessing biodiversity of marine animal forests. In Marine Animal Forests. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17001-5_21-1
Weil, E., & Rogers, C. S. (2011). Coral reef diseases in the Atlantic-Caribbean. In Z. Dubinsky & N. Stambler (Eds.), Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition (pp. 465-491). Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_27
Weil, E., Rogers, C. S., & Croquer, A. (2017). Octocoral diseases in a changing ocean. In Marine animal forests (pp. 1109-1163). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4_30
Welsh, J. E., Steenhuis, P., de Moraes, K. R., van der Meer, J., Thieltges, D. W., & Brussaard, C. P. D. (2017). Bacterial removal by the sponge Halichondria panicea in a controlled mesocosm system. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 80(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3354/ame01839
Wild, C., Mayr, C., Wehrmann, L., Schöttner, S., Naumann, M., Hoffmann, F., & Rapp, H. T. (2011). Organic matter release by cold water corals and its implication for fauna–microbe interaction. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 372, 67-75. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07724
Worm, B., Barbier, E. B., Beaumont, N., Duffy, J. E., Folke, C., Halpern, B. S., Jackson, J. B. C., Lotze, H. K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S. R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K. A., Stachowicz, J. J., & Watson, R. (2006). Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science, 314(5800), 787-790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294
Zhang, F., Blasiak, L. C., Karolin, J. O., Powell, R. J., Todorov, H., & Tringe, S. G. (2015). New perspectives on the nitrogen cycle in the coral holobiont. Trends in Microbiology, 23(8), 505-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2015.03.008
Zorrilla-Pujana, J. (2021). Advances in the marine animal forests scientific outreach and citizen science. In Perspectives on the Marine Animal Forests of the World (pp. 515-530). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57054-5_18
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0.
Derechos de autor 2025 Sergio Rossi